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Abstract

In the last 10 years, gaming has evolved to the point that it is now being used as a learning medium to educate students in many different disciplines. The educational community has begun to explore the effectiveness of gaming as a learning tool and as a result two different ways of utilizing games for education have been created: Gamification and serious games. While both methods are used to educate, serious games are meant to provide training and practice without entertaining; whereas, gamification uses game-like features such as points and similar to serious games is not meant to entertain. This review will provide an overview of gamification and serious games as well as the learning possibilities of non-educational games such as massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPG). Finally, MMORPGs will be discussed in detail as to whether they can meet the general behavioral requirements of effective learning.

Keywords: MMORPG gamification, gamifying, cultural heritage and gamification, culture and gaming, role playing games and language

Gamification and Game-Based Learning

Video games have become a very serious business as a form of entertainment. It is no wonder that so many people play games on a regular basis. As a matter of fact, 17 percent of the world’s population is involved in playing games (Kim, 2015b). In addition to playing games for entertainment, says Kim (2015b), a new use for games has emerged within the last 10 years and it is called gamification. Gamification is a way to use game elements to learn, but without the entertainment value (de Byl, 2013). Gamification strives to take the best parts of video games such as awards, badges, etc. and apply them to pedagogy. In addition to gamification, serious games have also been created to educate but in a different way. According de Byl (2013), serious games are used to practice, train and provide solutions. Many different versions of serious games do exist, and some are meant to make boring, everyday tasks a bit more interesting. For example, Swarm^TM allows people to share their location with people on their social network as well as being rewarded with coins on a leaderboard for checking in at different places (Aguilar, 2014; Crook, 2015). There is a new type of game that has entered the gamification arena called MMORPG. While gamification is not based on entertainment, MMORPGs are very much entertainment based and are being evaluated to determine their effectiveness in learning languages (Ryu, 2013). MMORPGs such as Everquest™, World of Warcraft™, and various other games, says Ryu, engages players in the sense that learners who played the game with native speakers understood more vocabulary items and communicated in a manner that was both collaborative and social in nature.

In 2015, the overall revenue from the video game industry—including hardware, software, gaming consoles, mobile, and PC games—is approximately $115 billion (Kim, 2015b). In order to generate such an exuberant amount, there has to be a corresponding amount of participation and interest from the players themselves. According to Kim (2015b), there are over 1.2 billion players which is about 17 percent of the world’s population, and in the United States there are 183 million of which five million play more than 40 hours per week. There is no doubt that games are serious business, and require a tremendous amount of work in order for them to be so popular. According to Kim and Lee (2015), the biggest games require the combined effort of hundreds of artists in order to fully materialize all the intricacies that appeal to the senses. An example is a first person shooter (FPS) called “Half Life^TM,” and its sequel “Half Life 2^TM which have won scores of Game of the Year (GOTY) awards for their physics engine, animation techniques, storytelling and more (Wyman, 2011).

Games, however, are not limited to being created by mega companies anymore, but instead there is an entire community dedicated to “modding.” Modding is a way to modify a video game by giving users, or modders, access to a game in order to create new content that can have new artwork, levels, etc., but restrict access to the actual source code of the game engine which is available only to the licensees (Spare the mod: in support of total-conversion modified video games, 2012; Wallace, 2014). Modding has given users great new opportunities to enter the gaming industry as a profession. For example, game design students and serious modders are encouraged to create mods, or modifications, prior to applying to a gaming company in order to showcase what they can do (Hong, 2013). With all this involvement, participation, and professional opportunities, it is no wonder that video games enjoy so much popularity and success while being very engaging.

The question is, though, why are video games so engaging? There can be many reasons but perhaps a particular theory can help to explain it: Perceptual Control Theory (PCT). PCT states that people’s behavior is purposeful and that they compare their existing experiences to their desired experiences and take the appropriate actions in order to gain the experience they prefer (Powers, 2016a). In other words, people, or in this case gamers, modify their behavior so what they are experiencing (finishing game levels, achieving higher scores, etc.) is more in line with what they intend and make certain they maintain the desired experience despite any changes (new levels, new villains, etc.) that may occur (Powers, 2016b).

In recent years, a new way of utilizing games in education has appeared and it is called gamification. The term was created by Nick Pelling back in 2002, but it was not until 2010 that gamification itself became well known and embraced (Kim, 2015b).

MMORPG Based Learning

Though traditional language learning consists of rote learning of grammar and vocabulary, emergent theories differ from this method. The theory of Distributed Cognition/Language emphasizes the need for an immersive learning experience with multi-sensory experiences in cultural and social context (Zheng, Bischoff, & Gilliland, 2015). Waters (2007) also argues that immersion is the best way to learn a language. He states that the games (MMORPGs) require learners to do things such as travel, communicate with others, read directions, and that these interactions force them to learn. Thorne et al. (2007) recognized several key factors of MMORPGs which made them suitable vehicles for language learning: Unscripted communication, reciprocal interactions, opportunities for self-correction, and development of relationships resulting in motivation to communicate in the other’s language.

Similarly, ecological theory theorizes that language learning is not made only from discrete rules regarding grammar and vocabulary, but rather from real time behavior and events. Thibault (2011) theorized that learners use the language in a dynamic way instead of learning it by rote. This ecological perspective finds that the design of MMORPGs can provide activities and opportunities for real-time communications that could not be easily replicated in a classroom environment.

Factors affecting game-based learning

Though MMORPGs provide many positive aspects for language learning, studies have shown that external factors can have an impact on the effectiveness of game-based learning. The following factors have been found to impact the quality of learning within MMORPGs.

Gender

Though past studies have indicated that males may be more interested in gaming and technology than females, Hou’s (2012) study revealed surprisingly few behavior differences between genders during gameplay. However, female players tend to prefer games with stories. Therefore, MMORPGs with narrative storylines may increase player motivation, especially among females. Other studies revealed that both male and female players exhibited increased motivation for playing, similar playing time, and positive attitudes toward game play (Hou, 2013; Peterson, 2011). The most significant component for both genders was relationship. Socializing is an important part of game play in MMORPGs which motivated both male and female players to seek out language interaction with other players. Females were more likely to spend time configuring their items, trading, and discussing their items, leading researchers to conclude that females were more motivated by their character’s outward appearance (Hou, 2012). Males engaged in more self-repetitious fighting behavior, and were also more likely to stay focused and engaged during battles (Hou, 2013). Though these differences were acknowledged, studies did not show significant differences in learning outcomes between genders, making MMORPGs an equally successful learning environment for both (Hou, 2013; Hou, 2012; Peterson, 2011; Wu, Richards, & Saw, 2014).

Proficiency

Proficiency was a factor that had serious impact on learning. In a study focusing on non-experienced MMORPG players, the learners experienced significant frustration with the learning curve of the game, especially as it related to language learning. Because of their lack of knowledge regarding game mechanics, and their lack of English proficiency, learners felt that it was very difficult to learn to play the game. This frustration was not shared by more experienced players (Wu, Richards and Saw, 2014). Novice learners in a Peterson (2011) study who experienced technical difficulties during game play were similarly prevented from participating in beneficial interactions.

Though factors such as motivation, playing time, and positive attitudes toward game play were similar across genders, players without prior gaming experience displayed significantly less motivation and engagement (Hou, 2013; Peterson, 2011).

Culture

Many of the studies of second language learning have been conducted with participants from an Asian cultural background. Studies have been conducted in Japan, China, Taiwan, and Korea regarding the effectiveness of MMORPGs in learning English as a second language. As Japanese learners attempted to communicate in English, they expressed pleasure at knowing they were anonymous to other players. This allowed them to communicate freely without embarrassment when making mistakes. Although some failed communications attempts occurred, learners were not permanently discouraged from attempts at social interaction (Peterson, 2011). Waters’ (2007) article shares an insight into Chinese students’ lives when he relays how Chinese parents dislike video games, yet were happy to allow their students to participate in an English practice class which used MMORPG as a practice tool. It is likely that the anonymity afforded by MMORPGs is highly appealing to students in the Asian culture which places high value on success and hard work, and finds shame in mistakes. It is not known whether these concerns would occur in other cultures until further study can be done for comparison.

Mentor Relationships

Because relationships are a strong motivator in MMORPG based learning, it is not surprising that Zheng, Bischoff and Gilliland (2015) had highly successful results when pairing a Japanese second language learner with an English speaking mentor. In this study, the pair played the game together and communicated through in-game chat allowing the Japanese player to learn from his English mentor through modeling behaviors as well as questioning/confirming. He showed evidence of learning in the areas of spelling and casual conversation during his gaming experience. However, in other studies, players without a mentor also achieved positive results in spelling and vocabulary showing that new relationships forged in the game can be just as effective as prior relationships in increasing motivation and learning (Suh, Kim and Kim, 2010).

Results of Language Learning with MMORPGs

MMORPGs offer the potential for unique learning opportunities because they are rich in linguistic text and because communication with other players is central to gameplay experience. Quest and game logs (see Figure 7) provide opportunity to practice reading and comprehension skills. These features make MMORPGs an appealing medium for language learning. Several studies have specifically focused on the effectiveness of MMORPGs in successful second language acquisition. A study of the MMORPG Talking Island (http://www.lineage2.com/en/game/patch-notes/goddess-of-destruction/new-areas/talking-island.php), a game specifically designed in Taiwan to teach second language, revealed that approximately 30% of the players' game activities consisted of mastery-learning games, such as flashcards. This study showed that as players progressed in proficiency, their amount of social interaction and discussion increase. This indicates the ability for MMORPGs to provide a type of scaffolding which is conducive to mastery of higher level language problems. Though no significant gender differences were noted, results revealed that female players were highly motivated to engage in peer discussion after trading items (Hou, 2012), suggesting that MMORPGs may be equally motivating for both genders if the right motivator is found.

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Conclusion

Gaming is fast becoming the most popular form of entertainment in America and it is no wonder that in the United States alone there are 183 million players of which five million play more than 40 hours per week (Kim, 2015b). As the current trend toward gamification continues, even non-entertainment industries will employ gaming as a way to advertise and engage customers. As studies show, games are a powerful tool to engage and motivate learners. Even non serious games, or perhaps especially non serious games, have been proven to contain built in collaborative features that facilitate a constructivist learning model.

The educational community will want to continue to explore the use of MMORPGs to promote problem solving skills and higher level thinking. Even without educational content, the social interaction tools and scaffolding processes ingrained in these games are a useful model for virtual learning worlds. The aspects of MMORPGs which have proven successful in language learning can be fine-tuned. This genre opens the door for other areas of learning, such as geography, economics, math, architecture, and many more. Students’ love of gaming provides a natural motivator which can be cultivated to encourage a love of learning. With careful planning, educators can make use of the realistic virtual worlds of MMORPGs to help their students solve real world problems and develop strong thinking skills.